'Bread and a pennyworth of treacle': excess female mortality in England in the 1840s

Article Abstract:

The causes of female mortality in England in 1841 were analyzed using death rates for the ages 5-15, 15-30, and 30-60. The statistics showed that females had lower mortality rates in early childhood and in old age. For the ages 10 to 40, female mortality was 5% to 10% higher than male mortality. The study cites social and economic factors rooted in discrimination as causes of higher female mortality not related to maternal mortality. Women were denied equal access to food thereby making them susceptible to diseases. Women had fewer employment opportunities and those employed were expected to fulfill the physical demands of both motherhood and housework.

Social aspects, Mortality, Patient outcomes, Demographic aspects, England, Poor women, Women farmers

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Value-added taxation: a tax whose time has come?

Article Abstract:

Value-added taxation should be enforced in the nation to prevent the predicted 3.6 percent of GDP-$276 billion budget deficit in the fiscal year 1997. Health care reforms may increase the deficit by $20 billion, according to the congressional budget office. Tax increases are essential for any substantial progress.

Planning, Prevention, Value-added tax, Budget deficits

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Taxation and Excess Burden: A Life Cycle Perspective

Article Abstract:

The impact of taxation is evaluated with consideration given to endogenous leisure and human capital decisions. The effect of behavioral parameters on the variance on lifetime income tax burden is examined. The welfare costs of taxation must consider human investment decisions.

Taxation, Environmental impact analysis

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