Need for supervision: its impact on leadership effectiveness

Article Abstract:

This article argues that the need for supervision among subordinates is a concept that can help to differentiate between circumstances in which leaders do and do not affect subordinate behavior. Need for supervision is defined as a contextual need, the salience of which depends on situational factors. A theoretical model is presented in which need for supervision depends on situational factors known from situational leadership theories and moderates the relationship between leadership styles and outcome variables. Two studies of insurance agents provide evidence for the reliability and construct validity of a scale designed to measure need for supervision. Moderated regression analysis shows that need for supervision moderates the relationship between task-oriented leadership and work stress, but not between task-oriented leadership and job satisfaction. A robust relationship between human-oriented leadership and job satisfaction is found, not affected by the need for supervision. Need for supervision seems to be fruitful concept that deserves further research. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

Supervision of employees, Employee supervision

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Teaching people to shift cognitive gears: overcoming resistance on the road to Model II

Article Abstract:

Reflective thinking is an active, conscious mode of cognition that plays an important role in problem solving and in learning. However, most people tend to resist switching from an automatic to a conscious, reflective mode of thinking under conditions of ambiguity and threat. Chris Argyris and Donald Schon have developed a theory to explain this resistance and a method for "unfreezing" automatic reasoning processes so that people can learn a more reflective king of thinking (Model II). This case study describes problems that authors encountered in using one of the Argyris-Schon unfreezing methods (the X-Y Exercise) and the process through which the problem was reframed and eventually solved. On the basis of this case study, the authors explore the sources of resistance to Model II thinking and critique methods of unfreezing that focus on confronteing and working through defensiveness. Finally, they propose an alternative unfreezing model based on the concept of "reconceptualization." (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

Methods, Cognitive styles, Reflection (Philosophy), Thought and thinking, Thinking

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Teaching leadership at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point

Article Abstract:

The authors present a description and analysis of how they teach leadership to more than 1,000 cadets each year at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point. These cadets, upon graduation and commissioning as second lieutenants, are the future leaders of the U.S. Army. The organizational and institutional context of this work has contributed to the authors' development of a unique methodology for teaching organizational leadership. The authors recently have extended this methodology to the development of leaders in the Los Angeles Police Department and in various police departments throughout New Jersey. The success of this experience over several years has convinced the authors of the merit of their approach for teaching leadership to both aspiring and practicing leaders across military and civilian organizational contexts. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)

Curricula, Study and teaching, United States. Military Academy, Command of troops

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